Graeco-Barbarian contacts in Hellenistic times are a matter of a great importance. In this paper we will concentrate on that period in the history of the Crimean peninsula.
In the Hellenistic period our region witnessed the spread of the so-called Late Scythian Culture. This term appeared in the late 1940s as a way of denoting the Barbarian culture which prevailed in the North Pontic region from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD.
In the late 1940s this culture was thought to be closely linked to an earlier Scythian culture, which lasted from the 7th to the 4th century BC. This Scythian culture is well-known in Europe from the royal graves containing numerous gold items in the Animal Style and objects imported from Greece.
Recently a new hypothesis has been put forward. It points out a chronological break between the Classical Scythian Culture and the earliest monuments of the Late Scythian Culture in the Crimea. The Classical Scythian Culture stopped at the end of the 4th century BC, and the Late Scythian Culture started at the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 2nd, centuries BC.
According to this concept the material culture of the so-called Late Scythians retains no obvious characteristics of the Classical Scythian Culture. From this point of view the Late Scythian Culture was a great mixture of different cultures of the Crimean peninsula.
To illustrate this I should like to present the recently discovered archaeological material. Of paramount importance are the results of a complete investigation of the settlement Neapolis Scythica on the outskirts of the modern town of Simferopol. Its excavation was undertaken with my participation and most recently under my direction.
Neapolis Scythica was the main Barbarian fortress in the centre of the Crimea where the steppe meets the mountains (Fig. 1). The settlement itself is situated on a rocky hill of triangular shape. At the time of writing more then ten thousands square metres have been, or are being, investigated.
The history of Neapolis Scythica is now positively known from the second quarter to the middle of the 2nd century BC. During that time the location of the later fortress was occupied by a group of fortified farmsteads, then a scattered settlement appeared with one-room buildings of elongated proportions
After the middle of the 2nd century BC the settlement was surrounded by defensive walls, thus creating a fortress. At the time of the construction of the defences a palace complex was built. Soon after these events the whole settlement was destroyed by a devastating fire, which took place about 135 BC. The destruction level is well dated by the large quantity of stamped Rhodian amphorae and characteristic Hellenistic pottery. Finds included more than five hundred amphora stamps and several Greek coins.
During the next period the only main building inside the fortress was the South Palace (Fig. 2). It was a complicated architectural complex occupying an area of 2,500 square metres situated near the Central Gates. Apparently this complex combined the functions of a royal residence and a ritual place.
The main building of the palace was the megaron (Fig. 3) which was 25 metres in length and 10 metres wide. In front of the megaron was a closed courtyard, which was surrounded by large houses of the Greek type and fences. The eastern house consisted of two rooms. In the centre of one room there was a fireplace. In the corner a pit was found with parts of a pithos. The southern house consisted of three rooms also with fireplaces and pits. The house was joined by its eastern wall to a winery. In the winery a row of four pithoi and a winepress were found. Here a special wine for consumption in the Palace was made, a fact which is evident from the small size of the winery and its location inside the Palace.
West of the megaron was a ritual pool (Fig. 2) made of well shaped stones. Its floor was painted with signs or symbols in red. The south, parade facade of the Palace was designed in Greek style. It was decorated with Doric columns and marble statues of Zeus, Athena, Achilles and other Greek deities. These columns and figures may have been imported since no marble is to be found in the Crimea (Fig. 4, 9-11).
The megaron was a one-room building of elongated proportions (Fig. 3). Its roof was covered by tiles from Sinope. The megaron has strong walls, 1.5 meters thick. The west wall was painted inside with ornament frieses in different colours.
Throughout a quarter of a century the megaron was restored annually and was twice completely rebuilt. This is obvious from the unique stratigraphy of one of the megaron's floors.
Situated in the centre of the building was a large fireplace. Discovered behind the hearth in a special pit under the floor was a sacred gift for the Gods of the Underworld: an amphora from Sinope with a particular hole in the foot. Originally it would have been full of wine and securely closed, but the wine leaked through the hole to be absorbed by the earth.
Discovered inside and outside of the megaron were numerous terracotta altars and thymiateria (Fig. 3). Nearly all of them were painted in blue, pink, red, green, gold and other colours. They were decorated with bucrania, rosettes, garlands and female busts. All of them were made in a palace workshop for ritual purposes.
As can be seen on the reconstruction, in the megaron were placed two statues (Fig. 4). The first is a herm made of marble (Fig. 5). It is shaped like a prism and represents a goddess surrounded by three dancing female figures. Similar herms have also been found in Panticapaion – the capital of the Bosporan Kingdom. The second statue is unique (Fig. 8): made of limestone, it was found in fragments and represents a female deity. The style is decidedly Archaistic. It may represent the main female deity of the Barbarian aristocracy of Neapolis Scythica, Ditagoia. This name appears in an inscription found in Panticapaion where it was inscribed on a stone altar on behalf of a daughter of King Skiluros. It also appears several places in the royal sanctuary of Panticapaion. Thus Ditagoia seems to be a goddess of the royal family of Skiluros.
The complex of the South Palace is unique not only in the Barbarian culture of the Crimean peninsula but in the whole North Pontic region during the Hellenistic period. It is therefore worth asking the question: whose were the apartments?
The investigation of this site started at the beginning of the nineteenth century with the discovery of several monuments, among which was a stone pedestal with an inscription containing the name of King Skiluros. This king was mentioned in Strabo’s writings and in some epigraphical sources.
In Strabo’s “Geography” there are three sections mentioning Skiluros. The first mentions him in connection with the fortress of Neapolis. The second mentions Palakus and other sons of Skiluros. A third also mentions Skiluros and his numerous sons.
Thus, the complex of the Palace of Neapolis was the residence of King Skiluros. His portrait can be seen on his coins and also on the marble relief found near the Central Gates. Only one fragment of the relief, which exhibits Greek influence, is preserved. This represents King Skiluros and perhaps his oldest son Palakus, who succeeded him. Also found in this location was another relief, which is thought to be a portrait of Palakus.
In 1945 the location of this find was investigated by the Soviet archaeologist P.N. Schultz. This immediately entailed the opening of the "mausoleum", which contained the tomb of a king (Fig. 2; Fig. 5). This mausoleum was situated immediately behind defensive walls.
Modern investigations, which in some way are a repetition of previous endeavours, suggest that the mausoleum could be reconstructed in the following way: It was a great sepulchre of stone, which consisted of the royal tomb, also of stone, three horse burials, and a luxurious throne-bed placed nearby. The skeleton was found in a seated posture. Around his lower parts were numerous gold ornaments of different kinds - plaques, buckles, brooches etc. (Fig. 6 and Fig. 7).
Near the skeleton's feet was a set of armour and weapons. This included an iron helmet of the Attic type, a sword of the Celtic type, and the heads of arrows and spears.
Discovered near the stone tomb was a large terracotta altar ornamented with garlands, rosettes and bucrania and also richly painted with gold. It bears a distinct similarity to those from the megaron.
The throne-bed (Fig. 8), which was discovered separately, was formerly reconstructed as a “Sarcophagus of a Queen”. However, according to the most recent reconstruction it belongs to the main tomb. First, the tomb's most important occupant was laid to rest in the mausoleum on this throne-bed. Not long afterwards, it became necessary to rebury the body of the dead man quickly and secretly. This was done in a great hurry in the previously prepared stone tomb, which was then effectively disguised. It remained undisturbed by the robbers who entered the mausoleum during its general destruction.
Following the royal burial, more then seventy persons – obviously nobles or royal relatives were also laid to rest. These persons were accompanied by rich grave goods – gold ornaments, armour, beads, amulets, and Hellenistic pottery.
We could ask – who was the person buried in the main tomb of the mausoleum? The history of the mausoleum should be framed by several dates. It was built during the period of the general reconstruction of the Palace in 120s BC as shown by the stratigraphy. On the other hand the destruction of the Palace and the looting of the mausoleum could be dated to 111-110 BC, i.e. to the invasion by the troops of Diophantos – the general in the army of Mithridates Eupator. There is only one king mentioned in written sources, who fits this time and place: we have to suggest that the stone tomb of the mausoleum is the burial place of the famous King Skiluros, whose body was of great importance for the state and its society.
The material discovered at Neapolis Scythica and other Crimean monuments demonstrates a superimposition by the potentially more active culture with clear nomadic traits on the indigenous Tauro-Scythian cultural base.
According to the chronology of Neapolis Scythica this occurred between the 140s and 130s BC. During this period a new aristocracy had actually developed a distinctive ideology and created the phenomenon of the South Palace of Neapolis – a sacral centre of the official royal cult and a residence of Skiluros.
A similar situation is seen at the same time on the vast territories of the Eurasian Steppes. The Crimean events supplemented the stirring up of the Huns in the East, the fall of Greaco-Bactria and the appearance of new nomadic groups in the Volga-Ural Steppes. All these events are interrelated. The royal clan of Skiluros with his nobles and warlike troops were nomads by birth. Most likely their appearance in the Crimea was a consequence of a great impulse from the East during the first half and middle of the 2nd century BC.
The reign of Skiluros can be dated from the mid 130s to the 110s BC. It seems likely that it was at this time in his rule that such steps as the creation of the state, a protectorate of Olbia, the capture of the Chersonesos’ chora, and the dynastic consolidation with Bosporus, were undertaken.
1999 saw the discovery of a new stone relief in fragments with a metric inscription. It was read by the well-known Russian epigraphist Yuriy Vinogradov, whose version of its translation follows:
1. This stone tomb was erected to many-glorious
2. Argotus by the governor of the Scythia, (which is) rich by its horse pastures.
3. (Who) precepted the valorous warriors to miss the near relation in a respecful fear of the gods
4. for the sake of Hellenes love and friendliness.
5. (Who) by many forces caming forward in defence (of the Motherland on hordes of)
6. the Thracians (and) the Meaotae has stretched on the (Ares) Gods punishment and dispersed,
7. (who gave birth to) (six)ty sons and equivalent number of daughters,
8. brought up them alike the son of Idanthemidos.
Vinogradov states that the inscription is written in elegiac distichs in the Ionian dialect. The poet who actually composed the inscription was deeply influenced by Homer. In the preserved part of the inscription there are eleven characteristically Homeric terms.
Yuriy Vinogradov and I co-operated on an investigation of the historical background of this inscription. Our conclusion is that it is a list of the services and achievements of the person on behalf of whom the monument was erected. The Governor of Scythia can only mean Skiluros. The Argotus in the inscription seems to have been his predecessor. Special attention should be paid to the mention of the military victories of the Governor over the Thracians and Maeotians, whose domains may be seen to constitute the western and eastern boundaries of the royal possessions. The enclosed territory implied would be the entire North Pontic region excluding the Greek cities and colonies.
The inscription was found carved in the rock, near a large cave. This cave was almost totally ransacked in ancient times. Discovered both inside and outside the cave were small gold ornaments and human bones. On the outside of the cave were more than seventy fragments from a bronze statue of a horse.
The archaeological context suggests that the inscription was most likely part of the pedestal of a large bronze statue of a horseman near the facade of the Palace. This statue was erected over the grave of Argotus.
Among other monuments of this period we should also mention the tomb recently excavated not far from Neapolis. A catacomb tomb of a warrior with his horse was discovered under a kurgan mound and investigated. The tomb can be dated to the third quarter of the 2nd century BC. A substantial quantity of horse harness, armament and Hellenistic pottery were unearthed. Most of the items and the whole set have direct parallels in the series of so-called “hoards” scattered over the territory of the North Pontic region.
The traditional view is that the appearance of such hoards was connected with the Sarmatians becoming more active during the times of Mithridates’ wars and marked the area of the deployment of their troops.
However, in the North Pontic Steppes at this period only a paucity of ordinary Sarmatian graves are known, and no burials of noblemen. So-called votive deposits – sets of ceremonial arms, horse harness and precious vessels – strike one as independent complexes, which are not connected with burials of persons. These complexes are very close to those of the silver hoards found in Dacia.
According to such a reconstruction, therefore, King Skiluros seems to have been a ruler of the barbarian steppe land from the Danube to the Azov regions including several areas of settlement on the edges of this territory. As a rule such zones of settlement were located in regions of the Lower Dnieper, the Sea of Azov, the Kuban and the Crimean foothills. This was absolutely the case with the North Pontic Steppes during the rule of the Crimean khanate in the Mediaeval period. At that time the only inhabitants of those vast territories seem to have been the nomadic Nogai, of whose society archaeology can tell us almost nothing.
The 2nd
century BC was the most splendid and heroic period in the history of the Crimean
Barbarians. After Skiluros' death, which occurred during the first Mithridates'
war, the Barbarians of the North Pontic region were defeated. In later times –
in the first centuries AD – Neapolis remained a substantial settlement but never
again had the status of a main royal residence. At the beginning of the 3rd
century AD Neapolis Scythica was destroyed completely by a mixed Barbarian
force.
Year 2001